飛行課程 Stage 1 - Airports
Content
Controlled and Uncontrolled Airports
Runway Layout
Traffic Patterns
Airport Visual Aids
Airport Lighting
Airport Safety Considerations
Airport Security
1. Controlled and Uncontrolled Airports
i. Controlled Airports
Operating control tower
Operations directed by ATC from the tower
Two-way radio required
ii. Uncontrolled Airports
No operating control tower
Operations directed by pilots who determine the active runway and how to enter and exit the traffic
Two-way radio not required, but recommended
2. Runway Layout
Runway Numbers:
Appear upright to approaching aircraft
Correspond to magnetic north reference for that runway, rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, with the last zero omitted
Parellel Runways:
Share runway numbers
Are differentiated by left, right, and center designations that appear below the runway number (L, C, R)
3. Traffic Pattern
i. Traffic Pattern
The purpose of traffic patterns is to safely organize arriving and departing air traffic
Variables that affect traffic patterns include:
Direction and placement of the pattern
Altitude
How to enter and exit the pattern
Most airports use a left turn standard rectangular pattern with named legs
Departure (upwind)
Begins after takeoff
Continuous along runway centerline until you are clear of the departure end of runway
Crosswind
Begins after the first turn
Used to transition to the next leg
Downwind
Begins after second turn
Parallel to the landing runway
Base
Begins after third turn
Transitioin from downwind leg to final
Final
Begins at completion of base-to-final turn
Continues to the runway
Departing and Entering a Traffic Pattern
ii. Wind Direction
Standard Wind Direction Indicators
Controlled airports assign runways based on
Local environmental conditions
Amount of airport traffic
Uncontrolled airports: Pilots decide which runway to use, based on the wind direction indicators
The Windsocks: Most common wind direction indicator
Provide the present wind conditions at the airport
Align with the wind
The stronger the wind, the straighter the extension
In gusty conditions, the windsock whips from side to side
Environmental Wind Direction:
Flag
Smoke
Blowing vegetation
The Wind Tee:
Aligns itself with the wind
Shows wind direction only - not speed or gustiness
Indicates the runway most closely parallel to the direction of the wind
Tetrahedron:
Point into the wind
Primarily indicate takeoff and landing direction
Are usually located near a windsock
Are used in conjunction with another wind direction indicator
Swing freely in the wind or can be positioned manually
Using Wind Indicators
If possible, land into the wind
When approaching an uncontrolled airport:
Overfly the area at 500 to 1,000 feet above the traffic pattern altitude
Look for any traffic
Observe environmental indicators
Locate the wind direction indicator
iii. Segmented Circles
A segmented circle is a circular structure located near the runway that includes a landing direction indicator within its circumference
Segmented circles:
Identify the location of the wind direction indicator
Indicate, by the presence of "L" extensions, a nonstandard traffic pattern
To indicate the direction that you turn in the traffic pattern for a given runway, segmented circles use:
L-shaped extensions
Landing strip indicators that indicate runway alignment
Traffic pattern indicators, which are aligned with the base lag of the pattern for a specific runway
iv. Noise Abatement
Reduce the level of noise generated by aircraft over neighborhoods near airports
Noise Abatement Procedures:
Assigned by control tower
Included in Airport/Facility Directory
Provided by the FBO or on signs near the runway
Airport Without Noise Abatement
Use designated runways or restrict operations during specified time periods
Recognize noise-sensitive areas such as housing developments and schools?
Use the lowest power setting possible on approach
Use the steepest safe climb on departure
4. Airport Visual Aids
i. Runway Markings
VFR Markings:
Runway number
Dashed white centerline
Some VFR runways also feature a runway threshold bar
Displaced Thresholds
Obstructions
Noise abatement
Marked by:
A solid white line
White arrows
You cannot land in a displaced threshold area, but it can be used for taxiing, the landing rollout, and takeoffs
Blast Pads
Marked by yellow chevrons
Where propeller or jet blasts can dissipate without creating hazard to others
Stopways
Sometimes referred to as the overrun
Used for an aircraft to decelerate and come to a stop in the event of an emergency
Do not use blast pad or stopway area for taxiing, takeoff, or landing
Closed Runways:
Are marked by one or more yellow Xs
Might appear usable, but operations cannot be conducted safely
Are communicated to pilots through a NOTAM
ii. Taxiway Markings
Airports have a network of taxiways that:
Link airport parking areas, ramp areas, and runways
Are identified by a continuous yellow centerline strip
Are sometimes defined by solid double yellow lines that visually separate the taxiway from pavement that is not intended for aircraft use
Runway hold lines indicate where a taxiway intersects a runway. Standard hold lines:
Consist of two solid lines and two rows of dashed lines
Keep aircraft clear of runway in use
Your aircraft is clear of the runway when all parts of the aircraft are on taxiway side of the hold line
Hold lines might not be used at smaller, nontowered airports or airports without instrument approaches
iii. Ramp Area Markings
Ramp area, or apron, is:
The area where aircraft are parked and tied down
The busiest part of an airport
ATC does not control ramp area traffic; you are responsible for keeping your aircraft under control and being aware of your surroundings in the ramp area
When on the ramp area, keep the following points in mind:
Operating on the ramp requires constant vigilance
Painted markings guide aircraft on the ramp
Roadway markings define lanes for ground vehicles, as well as crossing areas also intended for aircraft
Aircraft have the right of way over ground vehicles
ATC clearance to enter taxiway
Hand Signals:
Come ahead
Slow down
Stop
Left turn
Right turn
Start engines
Cut engines
Pull chocks
Insert chocks
All clear or okay
Emergency stop
iv. Airport Signage
Information Signs
Areas the control tower cannot see
Applicable radio frequencies
Noise abatement procedures
Mandatory Instruction Signs: You must stop at all mandatory instruction signs until the control tower gives clearance to proceed
The entrance to a runway
ILS critical areas
Areas prohibited to aircraft
Location Signs: Frequencyly surface-painted
ILS critical areas for aircraft exiting the runway
Runway boundaries
Taxiways or runways where your aircraft is located
Runway Distance Remaining Signs
Indicate how many feet remain before the end of a runway, expressed in even thousands
Direction Signs
Indicate the direction that you must take to turn onto the indicated taxiway
Typically located on the left side of the pavement immediately prior to the intersection
If encounter multiple direction signs:
Direction signs are oriented from left to right
Arrows point you in the approximate direction you must go to reach each taxiway
Direction sign arrays might not include a location sign that indicates the taxiway you are on
Destination Signs
Indicate the general direction to various locations on the airport, including:
Aprons
Terminals
Military areas
Civil aviation areas
Cargo acreas
Internatioinal areas
Fixed base operator
5. Airport Lighting
i. Airport Beacons
Beacons at land airports or heliports are most visible when viewed from 1 to 10 degrees above the horizon
ii. Runway Edge Lights
Runway edge lights:
Consist of a single row of white lights
Border each side of runway
Some runway edge lights incorporate yellow runway remaining lights
Runway Threshold Lights:
Runway end identifier lights (REILS), high intensity white strobe lights, are placed on each side of the runway
Threshold lights span the end of the runway
iii. Taxiway Lighting
Blue omnidirectional lights that line both edges of the taxiway
Steady green taxiway centerline lights
Runway Guard Lights: Installed at the intersections of taxiways and runways to make there intersections more conspicuous. Consist of either a pair of elevated flashing yellow lights installed on either side of the taxiway, or a row of three or five in-pavement yellow lights installed across the entire taxiway at the runway holding position marking
Clearance Bar Lights: Installed at holding positions on taxiways to make the holding position more conspicuous
Stop Bar Lights: Used to confirm the ATC clearance to enter or cross the active runway
iv. In-Runway Lighting
Runway Centerline Lighting
Helps pilot determine the amount of runway remaining
White in-pavement ceneterline lights are spaced at 50 foot intervals
Centerline lights between the last 3000 and 1000 feet are alternating red and white
The last 1000 feet of lights are red
Touchdown Zone Lighting
Start 100 feet from the threshold
Extend 3000 feet from the threshold or to the runway midpoint
Taxiway Lead-Off Lights
Alternate between green and yellow
Show the taxiway lead-off
Expedite the movement of aircraft
v. Visual Glideslope Indicators
Two-Bar Visual Approach Slope Indicators
"Red over white you're all right"
"White over white you're out of sight"
"Red over red you're dead"
PVASI Lighting System
Steady White: On Glide Path
Pulsating White: Above Glide Path
Stead Red: Slightly Below Glide Path
Pulsating Red: Below Glide Path
PAPI Lighting System
Must maintain an altitude at or above the glide path until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing
vi. Approach Lighting Systems
Guide aircraft to the runway
Help instrument-rated transition to visual reference
Vary in intensity
Are placed before the runway, along the extended runway centerline, beginning as far away as 3,000 feet from the runwy threshold
vii. Pilot-Controlled Lighting
To use the mike to activate pilot-controlled lightning:
Set your radio to the correct ocal frequency and key your mike
Key three times within five seconds for the lowest intensity
Key five times for medium intensity
Key seven times for maximum intensity
viii. Obstruction Lighting
Is used on cranes, towers, buildings, and power lines
Can be either red or white lights
6. Airport Safety Considerations
i. Runway Incursions
Runway Incursions: Any occurence at an airport involving an aircraft, vehicle, or object on the ground that creates a collision hazard or results in loss of separation with an aircraft taking off or intending to take off, landing, or intending to land
Causes:
Airport surface movement
Clearances
Communication
Situational awareness
Runway incursions are most likely to occur during ground operations in conditions of low visibility or bad weather. These conditions can challenge your situational awareness
Avoiding Runway Incursions:
Read back, in full, all taxi clearance, especially those involving active runway crossing, hold short, or line-up and wait instructions
Know your precise location and concentrate on your primary responsibilities while taxiing
If you are unsure of your position, ask for assistance or progressive taxi instructions
Verify that you have takeoff clearance, and check for traffic on final
Confirm that you are on the correct runway by checking signage and the numbers painted near the threshold
After you are lined up on the runway, check that your heading indicator matches the runway number
After landing, stay on the tower frequency until ATC instructs you to change frequencies
Report confusing or deteriorating airport markings, signs, and lightings, as well as confusing or errorneous airport diagrams and instructions
Accept a clearance from ATC only if you fully understand the clearance and all related procedures
ii. LAHSO
Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO): Increases airport capacity and maintains system efficiency
To conduct LAHSO:
Have at least a private pilot certificate
Be familiar with all available information concerning LAHSO at the destination airport
Determine which runway LAHSO combinations are acceptable for your airplane's landing performance and your personal minimums
Have the published ALD (Available Landing Distance) and runway slope information readily available and ensure that you can land safely and stop within the ALD with the existing conditions upon arrival
LAHSO Clearance
Decline if you consider it unsafe
If accept LAHSO:
Read back the full clearance including the words, "hold short of runway/taxiway/point"
Land and exit the runway at the first convenient taxiway before reaching the hold short line
If not possible to exit the runway, stop at the hold short point and wait for further ATC instructions
If you must go around, tell ATC immediately and avoid conflicts with other traffic
LAHSO Visual Aids
Yellow hold-short markings
Holding position signs, which show white text on a red background
White, pulsing, in-pavement lighting at some large airports
iii. Wake Turbulence
When an aircraft generates lift, air rotates over the wingtips from the high-pressure areas below the wings to the low-pressure areas above; this flow results in rapidly rotating whirlpools of air called wingtip vortices, or wake turbulence
The strongest wingtip vortices occur when an aircraft is generating lift and is heavy, slow, and in a clean configuration; the larger the aircraft, the stronger the vortices
Can persist for several minutes, depending on wind conditions, before it settles and dissiplates
Must be alert for wake turbulence near airports used by large aircraft
Wake Turbulence Avoidance:
When approaching behind behind a large aircraft that has just landed, stay above its glide path and touch down beyoung its touchdown point
When landing behind a large departing aircraft, touch down well before the aircraft's rotation point
When departing behind a large aircraft that has just taken off, lift before the aircraft's rotation point and remain above its flight path
Turn clear of the larger aircraft's wake as soon as possible
Avoid headings that will cross below and behind a large aircraft
In crosswind situations, fly upwind of the large aircraft's flight path
7. Airport Security
Responsible for keeping your aircraft and airport secure
