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伊斯蘭帝國(guó)

? ? ? ? ? 610年，一位40歲的阿拉伯商人在經(jīng)歷了長(zhǎng)期禁食和精神戒斷后，收到了來自天使長(zhǎng)加百列 (Gabriel)的神諭。天使告訴他：“誦讀吧。‘以創(chuàng)造之主的名義，他用一團(tuán)血塊創(chuàng)造了人。誦讀吧?！愕闹魇亲罡火埖?，他用筆教導(dǎo)，授予人們所不知道的知識(shí)。不，的確，人因自以為是而變得傲慢無禮，因?yàn)樗麄冋J(rèn)為自己已經(jīng)自給自足。但這些都是主的功勞?！?(Q:96: 1-5）在接下來的22年里，先知穆罕默德不斷收到神圣的啟示，直到632年去世；啟示命令他信奉和服從唯一的真神，以及關(guān)于世界末日、最后的審判、真主的無限憐憫，等待那些遵循道路和服從意愿的人享受天堂的樂趣。等待不悔改的罪人遭受地獄之火的折磨；一切社會(huì)、宗教、法律和道德規(guī)范；以及道德禁令，即凡是真主規(guī)定的都要遵守，凡是真主禁止的都要禁止。

In the year 610 a 40-year-old Arabian merchant given to lengthy periods of fasting and spiritual withdrawal received a divine message from the archangel Gabriel. The angel told him, “Recite: ‘In the name of thy Lord who created, created man of a blood-clot.’ Recite: ‘a(chǎn)nd thy Lord is the most bountiful, who taught by the pen, taught man what he knew not. No, indeed: surely man waxes insolent for he thinks himself self-sufficient. Surely unto thy Lord is the returning.’ ” (Q:96: 1–5) Over the course of the next 22 years until his death in 632, the prophet Muhammad continued to receive divine revelations commanding him to profess and obey the one true God and concerning the end of the world, the last judgment, the infinite mercy of God, and the delights of heaven awaiting those who followed his path and submitted to his will; the torments of the hellfire awaiting unrepentant sinners; social, religious, legal, and ethical norms; and the moral injunction to enjoin whatever God prescribed and forbid whatever he prohibited.

? ? ? ? ? 穆罕默德出生在麥加的古萊什部落的一個(gè)家庭里，麥加是現(xiàn)在沙特阿拉伯的一個(gè)城鎮(zhèn)。古萊什人是多神教徒，阿拉伯半島的許多居民也是如此。但半島上也居住著猶太人部落以及基督一性論信仰者和景教（又稱虔貞教，聶斯脫里主義）教徒，穆罕默德與這些人和其（這些人傳頌的）圣典的接觸可能刺激了他心里的愿望，即恢復(fù)原本純潔無暇的一神教。

Muhammad was born into a family of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca, a town now in Saudi Arabia. The Quraysh were polytheists, as were many of the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula. But the peninsula was also inhabited by tribes of Jews and by Monophysite and Nestorian Christians, and Muhammad’s contacts with these people and their sacred texts probably spurred his desire to restore the pure unadulterated monotheism that the patriarch

? ? ? ? ? 對(duì)穆斯林而言，亞伯拉罕是伊斯蘭的先知，且是穆罕默德的先祖（從亞伯拉罕之子以實(shí)瑪利追溯）。在穆罕默德宣揚(yáng)神圣啟示中所揭示的對(duì)真主服從（伊斯蘭教，“submission”）的信息的二十年中，穆罕默德創(chuàng)造了第三個(gè)一神教，結(jié)合了猶太教和基督教的許多經(jīng)典教義。穆罕默德死后，他的弟子將所有啟示收集在一起，編入《古蘭經(jīng)》。穆斯林認(rèn)為，《古蘭經(jīng)》不是人類創(chuàng)造的；它完全是真主口述給穆罕默德的啟示，真主稱穆罕默德為“真主的使者”（rusul Allah）和 “先知之印”（khatm alanbiya）（Q 33:40），在他之后再無先知。

Abraham practiced. In the two decades that Muhammad preached the message of submission (Islam, “submission”) to God revealed to him in the divine revelations, Muhammad created the third monotheistic religion as a culmination and perfection of Judaism and Christianity. After his death his disciples gathered together all the revelations and arranged them into the Quran. Muslims believe that the Quran is not a human creation; it is entirely the literal word of God dictated to Muhammad, whom God calls the messenger of God (rusul Allah) and the “seal of the prophets (khatm alanbiya) (Q 33:40), after whom there shall be no further prophets.

? ? ? ? ? 穆罕默德傳教的影響造成了一場(chǎng)社會(huì)革命，其規(guī)?？膳c拿撒勒的耶穌傳教所引發(fā)的革命相媲美。越來越多的部落被優(yōu)美的古蘭經(jīng)誦讀和穆罕默德富有魅力的說教所吸引，皈依了伊斯蘭教，并與穆罕默德簽訂了正式協(xié)議，承諾為他和他的追隨者提供政治支持和保護(hù)。但他自己的部落古萊什，卻反對(duì)他。作為麥加異教神殿的守護(hù)人，他們?cè)诒Ｗo(hù)多神教和部落習(xí)俗方面有既得利益，而新宗教明確譴責(zé)了這些習(xí)俗。起初，古萊什部落占據(jù)了極大優(yōu)勢(shì)。622年，他們迫使穆罕默德和其追隨者移居麥地那。

The impact of Muhammad’s preaching created a social revolution comparable to that sparked by the preachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Attracted by the beauty of the quranic recitations and Muhammad’s charismatic preaching, more and more tribes converted to Islam and entered into formal agreements with Muhammad, promising him and his followers political support and protection. But his own tribe, the Quraysh, opposed him: As custodians of the shrine of the pagan gods at Mecca, they had a vested interest in preserving polytheism and tribal customs that the new religion explicitly condemned. At first it appeared that the Quraysh would prevail: In the year 622 they forced Muhammad and his followers to emigrate to Medina.

? ? ? ? ? 然而，穆斯林很看重622這一年，認(rèn)為它是伊斯蘭時(shí)代的開始。從麥加城遷徙（或hejira）到葉斯里布（伊斯蘭教出現(xiàn)之前，麥地那的原名是Yathrib）綠洲，后來被稱為Medinat alNabi，即“先知之城”，標(biāo)志著伊斯蘭社區(qū)——烏瑪（阿拉伯語中“民族”的意思。在提到伊斯蘭教時(shí)，ummah指的是整個(gè)穆斯林世界，或信徒社區(qū)。作為一個(gè)神學(xué)概念，烏瑪旨在超越民族、種族和階級(jí)的劃分，團(tuán)結(jié)所有穆斯林）的誕生。烏瑪是一個(gè)革命性的概念，它的個(gè)人和部落成員不是通過血緣和部落關(guān)系聯(lián)系在一起，而是通過遵守新的宗教、政治和社會(huì)秩序，其基礎(chǔ)是《古蘭經(jīng)》的戒律和賦予穆罕默德作為真主選定的使者的神圣權(quán)力。事實(shí)上，穆罕默德在麥地那時(shí)期收到的啟示絕大部分是社會(huì)、倫理和法律方面的，他為組織和鞏固麥地那社區(qū)所做的決定將為伊斯蘭國(guó)家（哈里發(fā)）和伊斯蘭法律（伊斯蘭教法）的形成奠定基礎(chǔ)。

Yet Muslims cherish the year 622 and consider it the beginning of the Islamic era. The migration (or hejira) from the city of Mecca to the oasis of Yathrib, later called Medinat alNabi, city of the Prophet, marks the birth of the Islamic community, the umma. The umma was a revolutionary concept. Its individual and tribal members were bound together not by bloodline and tribal affiliation but by adherence to a new religious, political, and social order based upon the precepts of the Quran and the divine authority invested in Muhammad as God’s chosen messenger. Indeed, the revelations that Muhammad received during the Medinan period were overwhelmingly social, ethical, and legal, and the decisions he took to structure and consolidate the Medinan community would lay the foundations for the formation of the Islamic state (caliphate) and Islamic law (sharia).?

? ? ? ? ? ?麥地那的人們歡迎穆罕默德的到來，聽從他對(duì)真主真理的啟示，麥地那的當(dāng)?shù)鼐用癖环Q為安薩爾，字面意思是“幫助者”或“帶來勝利的人”。古萊什人控制著進(jìn)出麥加有利可圖的貿(mào)易路線。由于不能像商人或游牧民族那樣自由活動(dòng)，穆罕默德和他來自麥加的跟隨者（傳統(tǒng)上被稱為他的同伴）最初通過對(duì)這些商隊(duì)進(jìn)行襲擊（ghazu）來養(yǎng)活自己。他們的襲擊獲得了寶貴的戰(zhàn)利品和牲畜。穆罕默德的支持者和古萊什人及其盟友之間爆發(fā)了激烈的戰(zhàn)斗。雖然對(duì)手人數(shù)眾多，但穆罕默德在624年的巴德爾戰(zhàn)役獲得了決定性的勝利，在625年的武侯德戰(zhàn)役失敗后，又在627年的塹壕之戰(zhàn)中取得了驚人的勝利。這次勝利鼓勵(lì)了更多的部落加入麥地那的烏瑪社區(qū)。

The people of Medina who had welcomed Muhammad to the oasis and heeded his revelations of Allah’s truths were called ansar, “the helpers.” The Quryash enemies controlled the lucrative trade routes into and out of Mecca. Unable to operate freely as merchants or nomads, Muhammad and his fellow migrants from Mecca, traditionally known as his companions, initially supported themselves by staging raids (ghazu) upon these caravans. Their raiding yielded valuable booty and livestock. Pitched battles broke out between Muhammad’s supporters and the Quraysh and their allies. Though outnumbered, Muhammad won decisive battles at the Well of Badr in 624 and after a defeat at the Battle of Uhud in 625 a stunning victory at the Battle of the Trench in 627. This win encouraged many more tribes to join the umma in Medina.

? ? ? ? ? 這些戰(zhàn)斗也對(duì)穆罕默德與麥地那猶太部落的關(guān)系產(chǎn)生了重要影響。622年，麥加的穆斯林、猶太人和麥地那的阿拉伯人簽署了《麥地那憲法》，這是一份相互合作的協(xié)議，除其他事項(xiàng)外，承諾積極協(xié)助對(duì)方保衛(wèi)麥地那免受外來攻擊，并且不與外部敵人相勾結(jié)。據(jù)稱，猶太部落Banu Nadir 背棄了這一協(xié)議，并被指控密謀刺殺穆罕默德，他們被從麥地那驅(qū)逐到海巴爾鎮(zhèn)。在那里，他們與另一個(gè)猶太部落Banu Qaynuqa聯(lián)合起來反對(duì)穆罕默德。他們是勇敢的戰(zhàn)士，但缺乏戰(zhàn)略技巧和組織。Banu Qaynuqa的猶太人在經(jīng)歷了“像獅子一樣戰(zhàn)斗”之后，放下了驕傲的哈斯蒙尼之劍并投降了。數(shù)以百計(jì)的猶太海巴爾戰(zhàn)士被殺，他們的妻子和孩子淪為奴隸。第三個(gè)猶太部落叫Banu Qurayza，也居住在麥地那的綠洲。起初，他們?cè)趬q壕之戰(zhàn)中與穆斯林并肩作戰(zhàn)。然而，他們后來在被流放的Banu Nadir的勸說下，改變了效忠對(duì)象，支持?jǐn)硨?duì)的麥加人。在麥加軍隊(duì)被打敗并撤出麥地那之后，穆罕默德率領(lǐng)他的軍隊(duì)來到Banu Qurayza部落的附近，經(jīng)過大約25天的戰(zhàn)斗，Qurayza的猶太人終于無條件投降了。盡管他們無條件投降，但在隨后的談判中，仲裁者說服穆罕默德屠殺叛軍，并將他們的婦女和兒童賣為奴隸。

These battles also had important repercussions for Muhammad’s relations with the Jewish tribes of Medina. In 622 the Meccan Muslims, Jews, and Medinan Arabs signed the Constitution of Medina, an agreement of mutual cooperation pledging, among other things, to assist one another actively in defending Medina from outside attacks and not to side with an external enemy. The Jewish Banu Nadhir tribe, who allegedly reneged on this agreement and plotted to kill Muhammad, were expelled from Yathrib to the town of Khaybar. There they joined forces with another Jewish tribe, the Banu Qaynuqa, against Muhammad. They were brave fighters but lacked strategic skill and organization. The Jews of Khaybar, after having “fought like lions,” let go of the proud Hasmonean sword and surrendered. Hundreds of Jewish Khaybar warriors were killed, and their wives and children were sold into slavery. A third Jewish tribe called the Banu Qurayza also resided at the oasis of Medina. Initially they fought alongside the Muslims in the Battle of the Trench. Yet they later were persuaded by the exiled Banu Nadhir to change allegiances and support the rival Meccans. After the defeat and withdrawal of the Meccan forces from Medina, Muhammad led his troops into the neighborhood of the Banu Qurayza, who finally surrendered unconditionally after some 25 days of fighting. Despite their unconditional surrender, however, in the ensuing negotiations the arbitrator of the conflict convinced Muhammad to massacre the rebels and sell their women and children into slavery.

? ? ? ? ? （部分原因是）為了應(yīng)對(duì)與猶太部落的政治沖突，在他從麥加到麥地那的第二年，穆罕默德下令，朝拜的方向，即所謂的“基卜拉”，不再是朝向耶路撒冷，而是朝向以前阿拉伯部落的長(zhǎng)方體神殿，即麥加城中被稱為“克爾白(Kaaba)”的神殿或石屋的方向?？藸柊?Kaaba)處于被流放的族長(zhǎng)亞伯拉罕和他的兒子建造圣屋的同一地點(diǎn)上。630年，當(dāng)穆罕默德凱旋回到麥加時(shí)，他利用舊宗教的習(xí)慣、象征和風(fēng)俗來振興新宗教，將卡巴重新獻(xiàn)給真主（上帝）。

Partly as a response to the political conflict with the Jewish tribes, in the second year of his Hijra from Mecca to Medina, Muhammad decreed that the direction of prayer, called the qibla, was no longer to be toward Jerusalem but rather in the direction of the cubelike shrine that had been a center of worship for previous Arab tribes, the shrine or stone house called the Kaaba in the city of Mecca. The Kaaba stood on the same site on which the exiled patriarch Abraham and his son Ishmael had built the sacred house. When Muhammad returned in triumph to Mecca in 630, he reconsecrated the Kaaba to Allah (God) utilizing the habits, symbols, and customs of the old religions to invigorate his new religion.

? ? ? ? ? 阿拉伯先民的圣地以及到麥加朝圣的儀式，在之前的宗教中都很重要，現(xiàn)在都被獻(xiàn)給了伊斯蘭教。因此，人們歡迎穆罕默德，認(rèn)為他與其說是一個(gè)危險(xiǎn)的革命者，不如說是一個(gè)必要的恢復(fù)者，讓過去的輝煌在伊斯蘭教中達(dá)到頂點(diǎn)。

The sanctuary of the Arab forefathers as well as the ritual pilgrimage to Mecca, both of which were important in pre-Islamic religions, now were consecrated to Islam. Muhammad therefore was welcomed as less of a dangerous revolutionary than a necessary restorer of the best of the past, to reach its culmination in Islam.

? ? ? ? ? 先知穆罕默德成功地做了在他之前沒有其他阿拉伯統(tǒng)治者做過的事情：將分散的和分裂的部落統(tǒng)一在一個(gè)統(tǒng)治者和單一的一神教信仰之下。穆罕默德的新神權(quán)國(guó)家統(tǒng)一了麥加、麥地那和許多鄰近的貝都因部落。當(dāng)穆罕默德在632年去世時(shí)，該地區(qū)面臨著政治“火山爆發(fā)”的威脅。各個(gè)部落的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人制造了著名的分離事件，在阿拉伯語中被稱為 "ridda"。穆罕默德沒有指定繼承人，也沒有留下如何選擇繼承人的明確準(zhǔn)則，只是表示希望繼承人是古萊什家族的一員。穆斯林社區(qū)選舉了一位先知的副手，作為法律的監(jiān)護(hù)人和執(zhí)行者，并作為社區(qū)的臨時(shí)負(fù)責(zé)人，稱為哈里發(fā)。穆罕默德的岳父阿布·巴克爾是第一位哈里發(fā)，從632年到634年作為實(shí)際統(tǒng)治者。

The prophet Muhammad succeeded in doing what no other Arab ruler had done before him: unite the disparate and fractious tribes under a single ruler and a single monotheistic faith. Muhammad’s new theocratic state had united Mecca, Medina, and many of the neighboring Bedouin tribes. When the Prophet died in 632, the area threatened a political volcanic explosion. Various tribal leaders created the famous secession, known in Arabic as the ridda. Muhammad had named no successor and left no clear guidelines of how a successor should be chosen, other than expressing a desire that he should be a member of the Quraysh. His Muslim community elected a vicar, or deputy, of the Prophet as guardian and executor of the law and as the temporal head of the community, called a caliph. Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law, was the first caliph, ruling from 632 to 634.

? ? ? ? ? 穆罕默德感到自己肩負(fù)著神圣的使命，要帶領(lǐng)所有的人，而不僅僅是阿拉伯人，向真主的意志服從，這促使穆罕默德向拜占庭派遣遠(yuǎn)征軍，敦促拜占庭和其他國(guó)家的人服從伊斯蘭教的統(tǒng)治。在先知去世后的80年內(nèi)，穆斯林建立了一個(gè)龐大的帝國(guó)，東起信德（印度），西至伊比利亞半島，統(tǒng)治的地區(qū)包括了舊羅馬帝國(guó)的大部分區(qū)域。

Muhammad’s sense of divine mission to lead all people, not just the Arabs, to surrender to the will of God prompted Muhammad to send expeditions to Byzantium to urge the Byzantines and others to submit to Islamic rule. Within 80 years after the Prophet’s death, the Muslims created a vast empire that extended from Sind (India) in the east to the Iberian Peninsula in the west, ruling over an area encompassing much of the old Roman Empire.

? ? ? ? ? 伊斯蘭帝國(guó)不僅在地理上而且在文化上都是羅馬帝國(guó)的繼承者，因?yàn)樗矂?chuàng)造了一種新文明。正如之前的羅馬人一樣，穆斯林成功地將由不同種族和宗教的人組成的巨大領(lǐng)土統(tǒng)一起來，形成一個(gè)獨(dú)特的文明，為那些接受伊斯蘭教的人提供宗教、語言（阿拉伯語）、文化和伊斯蘭法律的統(tǒng)治。

The Islamic empire was an heir of the Roman Empire not only geographically but also culturally, for it, too, created a new civilization. As the Romans had before them, the Muslims succeeded in uniting an immense territory of ethnically and religiously diverse peoples into a distinct civilization conjoined by religion for those who embraced Islam, language (Arabic), culture, and the rule of Islamic law.

伊斯蘭社會(huì)和文化的統(tǒng)一特征

? ? ? ? ? 穆罕默德創(chuàng)建了確定伊斯蘭社會(huì)和文化輪廓的機(jī)構(gòu)。伊斯蘭教作為一種宗教建立在五大支柱之上：對(duì)唯一真神的信仰、每天五次的儀式性祈禱、齋月期間的禁食、繳納施舍稅以及到麥加朝圣。他還制定了發(fā)動(dòng)正義或“神圣”戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)（圣戰(zhàn)）的具體規(guī)則。在麥地那，穆罕默德在他家附近建造了一座清真寺，它不僅是宗教禮拜的場(chǎng)所，而且是社區(qū)的政治和行政中心。在清真寺的講壇上，穆罕默德宣講和頒布政策，宣布戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)或和平，并對(duì)社區(qū)成員之間的爭(zhēng)端進(jìn)行仲裁。穆罕默德去世后，清真寺繼續(xù)成為穆斯林宗教、文化、社會(huì)和政治生活的焦點(diǎn)。

Muhammad created the institutions that defined the contours of Islamic society and culture. Islam as a religion was based upon five pillars: the profession of the one true God, ritual prayer five times a day, fasting during the month of Ramadan, payment of the alms tax, and pilgrimage to Mecca. Specific rules for waging the just or “holy” war (jihad) were also instituted. At Medina Muhammad built a mosque adjacent to his house that became not only the place of religious worship but the political and administrative center of the community. From the mosque pulpit Muhammad preached and announced policies, declared war or peace, and arbitrated disputes between members of the community. After Muhammad’s death the mosque continued to be the focus of Muslim religious, cultural, social, and political life.

? ? ? ? ? 古蘭經(jīng)的啟示和穆罕默德的個(gè)人經(jīng)歷所揭示的社區(qū)生活原則圍繞著三個(gè)基本概念：（1）所有穆斯林之間的精神博愛；（2）穆斯林和那些與穆罕默德建立政治聯(lián)盟的非穆斯林部落之間的相互尊重、忠誠(chéng)和合作；（3）對(duì)烏瑪?shù)臄橙诉M(jìn)行戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)。在麥地那制定的關(guān)于征收公共施舍稅（天課：屬于伊斯蘭教的宗教術(shù)語，含有「潔凈」、「純凈」之意，也就是說通過交付「天課」使自己的財(cái)產(chǎn)更加潔凈，是念、拜、齋、課、朝五功的第四功）、穆斯林與非穆斯林之間的關(guān)系、戰(zhàn)利品的公正分配以及發(fā)動(dòng)圣戰(zhàn)的適當(dāng)規(guī)范的法律，對(duì)于鞏固伊斯蘭社會(huì)在阿拉伯邊界之外的傳播至關(guān)重要。

The principles of communal life as revealed in the Quranic revelations and the personal experiences of Muhammad revolved around three basic notions: (1) spiritual fraternity and love among all Muslims; (2) mutual respect, loyalty, and collaboration between the Muslims and those non-Muslim tribes with whom Muhammad established political alliances; and (3) warfare against the enemies of the umma. The laws regarding the collection of communal alms tax (zakat), the relations between Muslims and non-Muslims, the just distribution of war booty, and the proper norms of waging jihad instituted at Medina were fundamental in the consolidation of Islamic society as it spread beyond the borders of Arabia.

《麥地那憲法》

? ? ? ? ? 《麥地那憲法》是穆罕默德在622年與麥地那綠洲的猶太和阿拉伯部落簽訂的條約。穆斯林和猶太人各自信奉并嚴(yán)格遵守各自的宗教。每個(gè)社區(qū)在經(jīng)濟(jì)上都是自治的，但必須參加社區(qū)委員會(huì)，以確保政治團(tuán)結(jié)。在發(fā)生外部威脅時(shí)，憲法的所有簽署者應(yīng)聯(lián)合起來保衛(wèi)社區(qū)，保護(hù)其不可侵犯性，并為戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)籌資作出貢獻(xiàn)。如前所述，猶太部落和穆斯林之間的條約破裂了，導(dǎo)致許多猶太人被驅(qū)逐和清除。然而，《麥地那憲法》確實(shí)為國(guó)家與宗教少數(shù)群體之間關(guān)系的系統(tǒng)化奠定了藍(lán)圖。與猶太人、基督徒和瑣羅亞斯德教徒有可能做出這樣的安排，《古蘭經(jīng)》認(rèn)定他們是“有經(jīng)之人”，他們的啟示被認(rèn)為是神圣且有效的。

The Constitution of Medina was a treaty that Muhammad entered into with the Jewish and Arab tribes of the oasis of Medina in 622. Muslims and Jews were each to profess and strictly follow their respective religions. Each community was to be economically autonomous, but the obligatory attendance at communal councils would ensure political solidarity. In the event of an external threat, all the signatories of the constitution should band together to defend the community, protect its inviolability, and contribute to financing the war effort. As described previously, the treaty between the Jewish tribes and the Muslims fell apart, resulting in the expulsion and murder of many Jews. The Constitution of Medina did, however, lay the blueprint of the systematization of relations between the state and its religious minorities. Such an arrangement was possible with Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians, whom the Quran identified as the “People of the Book,” whose revelations were recognized as divine and valid.

? ? ? ? ? 《古蘭經(jīng)》禁止強(qiáng)行皈依，但它確實(shí)強(qiáng)調(diào)應(yīng)脅迫“有經(jīng)之人”服從穆斯林的統(tǒng)治，在這種統(tǒng)治下，他們被允許信奉自己的宗教并管理自己的內(nèi)部事務(wù)，以換取治理和支付稱為吉茲雅（一種曾經(jīng)在伊斯蘭國(guó)家向非穆斯林人民（齊米）實(shí)施的人頭稅，征稅對(duì)象，通常是有體力當(dāng)兵及有財(cái)力繳稅的成年男子，不包括奴隸）的人頭稅。另一方面，他們免于支付伊斯蘭宗教稅（天課）或從中受益。

The Quran forbade forcible conversion, but it did stress that the People of the Book should be coerced into submitting to Muslim rule, under which they were allowed to practice their religions and manage their internal affairs in exchange for governance and payment of a poll tax called jizya. On the other hand, they were exempt from paying or benefiting from the Islamic religious tax (zakat).

競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的力量：拜占庭人和薩珊人

? ? ? ? ? 穆罕默德的新宗教與兩個(gè)大國(guó)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)，即拜占庭和薩珊王朝（Sassanid）。拜占庭基督徒的首都在拜占庭，即君士坦丁堡。拜占庭皇帝通過講希臘語的公務(wù)員來統(tǒng)治地中海東部的大城市，如安提阿、敘利亞和埃及的亞歷山大。安納托利亞的亞美尼亞人、敘利亞的敘利亞人和埃及的科普特基督徒都信奉基督教，但在教義上有地方差異。

Muhammad’s new religion competed with two major powers, the Byzantine and the Sassanian (Sassanid). The Byzantine Christians had their capital at Byzantium, formerly the city of Constantinople. The Byzantine emperor ruled through Greek-speaking civil servants the great cities of the eastern Mediterranean, Antioch, Syria, and Alexandria in Egypt. Christianity with local doctrinal variations was practiced by Armenians in Anatolia, Syriacs in Syria, and Coptic Christians in Egypt.

? ? ? ? ? 另一個(gè)大帝國(guó)是薩珊王朝。他們的統(tǒng)治拱衛(wèi)著伊朗和伊拉克，外人難以進(jìn)入中亞地區(qū)。最初的薩珊家族國(guó)家是伊朗南部的一個(gè)講波斯語的民族，他們信奉拜火教。這種宗教與哲學(xué)家瑣羅亞斯德（約公元前1200年）有關(guān)，他認(rèn)為至高無上的神之下的宇宙是一個(gè)戰(zhàn)場(chǎng)，善與惡的精神在上面爭(zhēng)奪控制權(quán)。雖然正義對(duì)邪惡的勝利是肯定的，但具有美德和儀式純潔性的男人和女人可以加速結(jié)果的到來。信仰瑣羅亞斯德教或祆教的薩珊人將其首都設(shè)在底格里斯河和幼發(fā)拉底河之間的泰西封(Ctesiphon)。

The second great empire was the Sassanian. Their rule arched over Iran and Iraq into Central Asia. The original Sassanian family state was a Persian-speaking people of southern Iran who practiced Zoroastrianism. This religion was associated with the philosopher Zoroaster (d. c. 1200 B.C.E.), who believed the universe beneath the supreme God was a battleground upon which good and evil spirits contended for control. Though the victory of good over evil was assured, men and women of virtue and ritual purity could hasten the outcome. The Sassanian followers of Zoroastrianism or Mazdaism had their capital at Ctesiphon, located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

? ? ? ? ? 長(zhǎng)期以來，拜占庭人和薩珊人一直是激烈的對(duì)手，在入侵、戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)和休戰(zhàn)之間進(jìn)行著似乎無止境的循環(huán)，最后又被進(jìn)一步爆發(fā)的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)所結(jié)束。通常情況下，休戰(zhàn)的出現(xiàn)是因?yàn)殡p方同時(shí)受到野蠻人入侵的威脅。曠日持久的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，瘟疫的流行，以及由于農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)和貿(mào)易的中斷而導(dǎo)致的經(jīng)濟(jì)衰退，使得兩個(gè)帝國(guó)都被削弱了，成為伊斯蘭教強(qiáng)大而積極的軍隊(duì)的獵物。促使伊斯蘭教迅速征服的一個(gè)重要因素是每個(gè)國(guó)家的少數(shù)民族人口所遭受的宗教迫害。猶太人在拜占庭皇帝希拉克略和波斯國(guó)王霍斯勞二世的統(tǒng)治下都遭受了迫害。伽珊尼德部落的一性論者從希拉克略的軍隊(duì)中叛逃，導(dǎo)致了伊斯蘭勢(shì)力對(duì)敘利亞和巴勒斯坦的征服。

The Byzantines and Sassanians had long been bitter rivals engaging in a seemingly endless cycle of invasions, wars, and truces, only to be ended by further outbursts of warfare. Often a truce might come about because each side was also simultaneously under the threat of the barbarian invasions. Protracted wars, epidemics of plague, and the economic decline due to the disruptions in agricultural production and trade that these engendered left both empires weakened and ripe pickings for the strong and motivated armies of Islam. An important factor contributing to the swiftness of the Islamic conquests was the religious persecution that minority populations within each realm had suffered. Jews suffered under both the Byzantine emperor Heraclius and the Persian shah Khosrau II. The defection of the Ghassanid Monophysites from Heraclius’s army resulted in the Islamic conquests of Syria and Palestine.

? ? ? ? ? 下一個(gè)即將被伊斯蘭教統(tǒng)治的地區(qū)是一個(gè)由語言、文化和宗教組成的華麗織錦。在泰西封，摩尼教、瑣羅亞斯德教、基督教聶斯脫里主義和猶太教都很繁榮。波斯語方言，特別是巴列維語，以及與希伯來語和阿拉伯語相關(guān)的閃族語言阿拉米語和敘利亞語也很盛行。紅海對(duì)岸的埃塞俄比亞古王國(guó)將科普特基督教作為其官方宗教。位于阿拉伯西南部的也門有自己的語言，與阿拉伯其他地方的阿拉伯語不同，還有自己的多神教。阿拉伯半島的大部分地區(qū)是開闊的沙漠或大草原，有孤立的綠洲。貝都因阿拉伯人是游牧民族，他們牧養(yǎng)駱駝、綿羊和山羊。其他人在綠洲上種植谷物和棕櫚樹。還有一些人是小集鎮(zhèn)上的商人和工匠。

The area that was to come under Islamic rule was a rich tapestry of languages, cultures, and religions. In Ctesiphon Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, Christian Nestorianism, and Judaism flourished. Persian language dialects, particularly Pahlavi, were spoken, as were Aramaic, a Semitic language related to Hebrew and Arabic, and Syriac. Across the Red Sea the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia celebrated Coptic Christianity as its official religion. Yemen, in southwest Arabia, had its own language, which differed from Arabic spoken elsewhere in Arabia, and its own polytheistic religion. Much of the Arabian Peninsula was open desert or steppeland with isolated oases. Bedouin Arabs were nomads who pastured camels, sheeps, and goats. Other people cultivated grain and palm trees in the oases. Still others were traders and craftsmen in small market towns.

? ? ? ? ? ?騎駱駝的游牧民族在數(shù)量上是少數(shù)，但卻是一個(gè)流動(dòng)的、武裝的、強(qiáng)大的群體，他們與城鎮(zhèn)的商人一起支配著農(nóng)民和手工業(yè)者。游牧群體具有強(qiáng)烈的勇氣、好客、對(duì)家庭的忠誠(chéng)和對(duì)祖先的驕傲等精神。著名的部落成員領(lǐng)導(dǎo)他們。他們崇拜的神靈被認(rèn)為是居住在一個(gè)神圣的地方或城鎮(zhèn)，不受部落沖突的影響，稱為“哈拉姆”。哈拉姆是一個(gè)朝圣、祭祀、集會(huì)和仲裁的中心。一個(gè)家庭負(fù)責(zé)保護(hù)“哈拉姆”不受鄰近部落的侵?jǐn)_和褻瀆。在綠洲城市中，盡管有一種特定的信仰占主導(dǎo)地位，但各種宗教還是共存的。希拉是一個(gè)由拉赫姆人控制的基督教中心，附近有伽珊尼德人。位于阿拉伯西部的漢志（Hijaz，又稱希賈茲）是猶太工匠、商人和農(nóng)民的家園。

Nomads who rode camels were a numerical minority but were a mobile, armed, powerful group that joined with the town merchants to dominate the farmers and craftsmen. Nomadic groups had a strong ethos of courage, hospitality, loyalty to family, and pride of ancestry. Prominent tribal members led them. They worshipped gods thought to dwell in a sanctuary place or town sacrosanct from tribal conflict called a haram. A haram was a center of pilgrimage, sacrifice, meeting, and arbitration. A family protected the haram from neighboring tribes’ incursions and desecrations. Religions coexisted in the oasis cities even though one particular faith predominated. Hira was a Christian center controlled by the Lakhmids, and nearby were the Ghassanids. Hijaz, in western Arabia, was a home for Jewish craftsmen, merchants, and farmers.

哈里發(fā)歐瑪爾和伊斯蘭教的擴(kuò)張

? ? ? ? ? 634年，歐瑪爾·賓·哈塔卜（634-644）被推舉為伊斯蘭的哈里發(fā)，接替阿布·伯克爾（巴克爾）。歐瑪爾作為伊斯蘭社會(huì)的領(lǐng)袖嶄露頭角，這是一個(gè)非凡宗教轉(zhuǎn)換故事的高潮。歐瑪爾是古萊什部落的成員，他一直是穆罕默德的死敵，與他作戰(zhàn)，甚至計(jì)劃陰謀殺害他。然而，當(dāng)他聽到妹妹背誦《古蘭經(jīng)》中的一段經(jīng)文時(shí)，據(jù)說他被這段優(yōu)美的背誦所感動(dòng)，當(dāng)場(chǎng)皈依伊斯蘭教。從此，他成為穆罕默德最親密、最堅(jiān)定的盟友之一，并成為伊斯蘭教的衷心捍衛(wèi)者。

In 634 Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644) was elected to succeed Abu Bakr as the caliph of the Islamic umma. Umar’s rise to prominence as the leader of the Islamic community is the culmination of a remarkable tale of religious conversion. Umar, a member of the Quraysh tribe, had been an archenemy of Muhammad, battling against him and going so far as to plot to kill him. Yet upon hearing his sister recite a verse from the Quran, he is said to have been so moved by the beauty of the recitation that he converted on the spot. From then on he became one of Muhammad’s closest and staunchest allies and a zealous defender of Islam.

? ? ? ? ? ? 在歐瑪爾的哈里發(fā)時(shí)期，圣戰(zhàn)思想一直很重要。歐瑪爾打算從精力充沛的貝都因部落中創(chuàng)建Dar al-Islam（伊斯蘭教的居所）。634年，伊斯蘭戰(zhàn)士征服了拜占庭的博特拉要塞（fortress of Bothra）。第二年，他們征服了大馬士革。636年，他們征服了敘利亞。638年，他們沖進(jìn)耶路撒冷的大門，并于640年進(jìn)入凱撒利亞。他們還占領(lǐng)了美索不達(dá)米亞。636年和637年，波斯在希拉中心附近的卡迪西亞（Qadisiyya）遭遇失敗，歐瑪爾的軍隊(duì)在那里將薩珊王朝的軍隊(duì)打得落荒而逃。阿拉伯軍隊(duì)沖進(jìn)了泰西封城。641-642年，波斯帝國(guó)在哈馬丹附近的納哈萬德戰(zhàn)役中慘敗。接下來，穆斯林襲擊了埃及。入侵者在（現(xiàn)代）開羅附近的福斯塔特建立了一個(gè)統(tǒng)治中心。641年，亞歷山大城被穆斯林軍隊(duì)攻陷。此后，他們征服了昔蘭尼加。伊斯蘭先遣部隊(duì)最遠(yuǎn)深入到突尼斯。

During Umar’s caliphate the religious ideal of jihad was preeminent. Umar intended to create from the energetic Bedouin tribes the Dar al-Islam (Abode of Islam). In 634 Islamic warriors conquered the Byzantine fortress of Bothra. The following year they subjugated Damascus. The next year, 636, they overcame Syria. In 638 they stormed the gates of Jerusalem, invaded the city, and entered Caesarea in 640. They also took Mesopotamia. Persia in 636 and 637 suffered defeat at Qadisiyya, near the center of Hira, where Umar’s men put the Sassanid army to flight. Arab armies rushed into the city of Ctesiphon. In the year 641–642 the Persian Empire succumbed at the Battle of Ninavand, near Hamadan. Next the Muslims attacked Egypt. The invaders established a center at Fustat, near modern Cairo. Alexandria fell to Muslim forces in 641. Thereafter they conquered Cyrenaica. Advance parties penetrated as far as Tunisia.

行政改革、吉茲亞和《歐麥爾條約》

? ? ? ? ? 伊斯蘭教統(tǒng)治在國(guó)外的擴(kuò)張，需要進(jìn)行行政和法律改革，以鞏固哈里發(fā)的地位。當(dāng)?shù)氐恼魏拓?cái)政機(jī)構(gòu)基本上保持不變。歐瑪爾建立了一個(gè)行政上層建筑來統(tǒng)治新征服的土地，引入了一個(gè)公共財(cái)政來為帝國(guó)的需求提供資金，并組織了王國(guó)的人口普查，他還是第一個(gè)鑄造硬幣的穆斯林統(tǒng)治者，并開始了編纂伊斯蘭法的過程。

The expansion of Islamic rule abroad necessitated administrative and legal reforms to consolidate the caliphate. Native political and fiscal institutions were largely kept intact. Umar established an administrative superstructure to rule the newly conquered lands, introduced a public treasury to finance the needs of the empire, organized the census of the realm, was the first Muslim ruler to mint coinage, and began the process of codifying Islamic law.

? ? ? ? ? 歐瑪爾還對(duì)宗教少數(shù)群體的法律地位的系統(tǒng)化作出了貢獻(xiàn)。大多數(shù)學(xué)者認(rèn)為，被稱為 “歐瑪爾條約”的文件是在8世紀(jì)和11世紀(jì)之間的某個(gè)時(shí)候由法律專家編輯的，但被歸于歐瑪爾，以使其具有合法性。它的靈感可能來自于歐瑪爾統(tǒng)治時(shí)期制定的慣例?！稓W瑪爾條約》詳細(xì)列出了猶太教、基督教和拜火教齊米（亦被譯作迪米，伊斯蘭教稱「（被）保護(hù)民」的術(shù)語，是指在以沙里亞法規(guī)為基礎(chǔ)的伊斯蘭國(guó)家中信仰其他一神教的人（有經(jīng)者）。多神教與無神論者不在被保護(hù)的范圍內(nèi)）的個(gè)人地位、義務(wù)和權(quán)利。齊米們承諾在未獲得統(tǒng)治者許可的情況下不建造新的寺廟。他們發(fā)誓在危險(xiǎn)的時(shí)候履行對(duì)穆斯林的忠誠(chéng)，不利用他們的禮拜場(chǎng)所來隱藏、幫助或教唆穆斯林的敵人。他們承諾不張揚(yáng)地信奉自己的宗教，不為他人傳教，也不禁止其社區(qū)成員皈依伊斯蘭教。賤民也有義務(wù)對(duì)穆斯林表示敬意。

Umar also contributed to the systematization of the legal status of religious minorities. Most scholars believe that the document called the Pact of Umar was redacted by doctors of the law sometime between the eighth and the 11th centuries but was attributed to Umar to lend it legitimacy. It may have been inspired by practices instituted during his rule. The Pact of Umar outlines in detail the personal status, duties, and rights of Jewish, Christian, and Zoroastrian dhimmis. Dhimmis pledged not to build new temples without obtaining permission from the ruler. They vowed to honor their allegiance to the Muslims in times of peril and not to use their places of worship to hide, aid, or abet enemies of the Muslims. They promised not to practice their religion ostentatiously, to proselytize others, or to forbid members of their community to convert to Islam. Dhimmis were also obliged to show deference to Muslims.

? ? ? ? ? 《歐瑪爾條約》旨在明確界定穆斯林和非穆斯林之間的社會(huì)界限，加強(qiáng)前者對(duì)后者的優(yōu)越地位。因此，在衣著、言語或習(xí)俗上，如使用尊貴的頭銜等方面，齊米不得模仿穆斯林。他們也不能騎馬或擁有比穆斯林更高的寺廟或房屋。雖然齊米對(duì)穆斯林來說是二等公民，但齊米的制度化與拉丁化西部和拜占庭帝國(guó)有關(guān)宗教少數(shù)群體地位的政策的任意性形成鮮明對(duì)比。此外，在穆斯林中世紀(jì)的過程中，嚴(yán)格的規(guī)定主要是在違反規(guī)定的情況下得到尊重。在倭馬亞王朝的西班牙、阿拔斯王朝的伊拉克、法蒂瑪王朝和后來的馬穆魯克王朝的埃及，穆斯林統(tǒng)治者嚴(yán)重依賴他們的非穆斯林臣民，如猶太人和歐洲基督徒難民，穆斯林統(tǒng)治者花錢雇傭他們?yōu)樽约汗ぷ??；浇虒?duì)猶太人的迫害以及天主教和拜占庭對(duì)彼此的迫害，為穆斯林帝國(guó)創(chuàng)造了大量熟練的翻譯、外交官、調(diào)解員、收稅員以及其他行政和法庭官員。

The Pact of Umar aimed to define clearly social boundaries between Muslims and nonMuslims and to reinforce the superior status of the former over the latter. Hence, dhimmis were not to imitate the Muslims in their manner of dress, speech, or customs such as the use of honorific titles. They also could not ride horses or have temples or houses higher than those of the Muslims. While dhimmis were second-class citizens with respect to the Muslims, the institutionalization of dhimmitude contrasts with the arbitrariness of the policies governing the status of religious minorities in the Latin West and the Byzantine Empire. Moreover, the strict provisions were mainly honored in the breach during the course of the Muslim Middle Ages. In the dynasties of Umayyad Spain, Abbasid Iraq, and Fatimid and later Mamluk Egypt, Muslim rulers heavily relied on their non-Muslim subjects such as Jews and refugee European Christians whom they paid to work for them. The Christian persecution of the Jews and the Catholic and Byzantine persecutions of each other created an ample supply of skilled translators, diplomats, mediators, tax collectors, and other administrative and court officers.

? ? ? ? ? 穆斯林統(tǒng)治下的人口的伊斯蘭化是一個(gè)漸進(jìn)的過程。與流行的神話相反，伊斯蘭教不是一個(gè)“靠劍傳播”的宗教。正如伊斯蘭教學(xué)者弗雷德·丹尼所指出的，伊斯蘭征服的目的主要不是宗教，而是經(jīng)濟(jì)和政治（丹尼36）。一些皈依伊斯蘭教的人無疑是被作為穆斯林的財(cái)政優(yōu)勢(shì)的前景所誘惑，因?yàn)辇R米的人頭稅高于穆斯林的天課。大地主和城市大商人可能覺得皈依伊斯蘭教很方便、很快捷。穆罕默德本人作為一個(gè)商人，培養(yǎng)和頌揚(yáng)了商業(yè)階層。最早的伊斯蘭教形式是以城市為中心，對(duì)商業(yè)寬容。然而，并非所有皈依者都是出于純粹的經(jīng)濟(jì)考慮。許多人，如歐瑪爾本人，是被《古蘭經(jīng)》的美麗和它所傳達(dá)的今世繁榮和他世救贖的簡(jiǎn)單信息所吸引而加入伊斯蘭教的。

The Islamization of the populations under Muslim rule was a gradual process. Contrary to popular myth, Islam was not a religion that “spread by the sword.” As scholar of Islam Fred Denny notes, the aims of the conquests were not primarily religious but economic and political (Denny 36). Some converts to Islam were undoubtedly tempted by the prospect of the fiscal advantages of being a Muslim, since the dhimmi poll tax was higher than the Muslim zakat. Large landowners and major urban merchants may have found conversion to Islam convenient and expedient. Muhammad himself as a merchant cultivated and celebrated the commercial classes. The earliest forms of Islam were urban centered and business tolerant. Not all converts were motivated by purely economic considerations, however. Many, such as Umar himself, had been drawn to Islam by the beauty of the Quran and by the simplicity of its message of this-worldly prosperity and otherworldly salvation.

《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）

By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones?

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